使用ggplot2画图
来源：互联网 发布：推荐算法的稀疏性问题 编辑：程序博客网 时间：2024/06/05 12:02
转载自：http://blog.csdn.net/macyang/article/details/40039765
Why use ggplot2
ggplot2是我见过最human friendly的画图软件，这得益于Leland Wilkinson在他的著作《The Grammar of Graphics》中提出了一套图形语法，把图形元素抽象成可以自由组合的成分，Hadley Wickham把这套想法在R中实现。
为什么要学习ggplot2，可以参考ggplot2: 数据分析与图形艺术的序言（btw: 在序言的最后，我被致谢了）。
Hadley Wickham也给出一堆理由让我们说服自己，我想再补充一点，Hadley Wickham是学医出身的，做为学生物出身的人有什么理由不支持呢:)
ggplot2基本要素
- 数据（Data）和映射（Mapping）
- 几何对象（Geometric）
- 标尺（Scale）
- 统计变换（Statistics）
- 坐标系统（Coordinante）
- 图层（Layer）
- 分面（Facet）
- 主题（Theme）
这里将从这些基本要素对ggplot2进行介绍。
数据（Data）和映射（Mapping)
下面以一份钻石的数据为例，这份数据非常大，随机取一个子集来画图。
12345<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/require" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>require</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>ggplot2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>diamonds<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/set.seed" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>set.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">seed</span></strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">42</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>small <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> diamonds<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sample" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sample</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/nrow" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>nrow</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>diamonds<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1000</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/head" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>head</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
## carat cut color clarity depth table price x y z## 49345 0.71 Very Good H SI1 62.5 60 2096 5.68 5.75 3.57## 50545 0.79 Premium H SI1 61.8 59 2275 5.97 5.91 3.67## 15434 1.03 Ideal F SI1 62.4 57 6178 6.48 6.44 4.03## 44792 0.50 Ideal E VS2 62.2 54 1624 5.08 5.11 3.17## 34614 0.27 Ideal E VS1 61.6 56 470 4.14 4.17 2.56## 27998 0.30 Premium E VS2 61.7 58 658 4.32 4.34 2.67
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/summary" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>summary</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
## carat cut color clarity depth ## Min. :0.220 Fair : 28 D:121 SI1 :258 Min. :55.2 ## 1st Qu.:0.400 Good : 88 E:186 VS2 :231 1st Qu.:61.0 ## Median :0.710 Very Good:227 F:164 SI2 :175 Median :61.8 ## Mean :0.819 Premium :257 G:216 VS1 :141 Mean :61.7 ## 3rd Qu.:1.070 Ideal :400 H:154 VVS2 : 91 3rd Qu.:62.5 ## Max. :2.660 I:106 VVS1 : 67 Max. :72.2 ## J: 53 (Other): 37 ## table price x y ## Min. :50.1 Min. : 342 Min. :3.85 Min. :3.84 ## 1st Qu.:56.0 1st Qu.: 990 1st Qu.:4.74 1st Qu.:4.76 ## Median :57.0 Median : 2595 Median :5.75 Median :5.78 ## Mean :57.4 Mean : 4111 Mean :5.79 Mean :5.79 ## 3rd Qu.:59.0 3rd Qu.: 5495 3rd Qu.:6.60 3rd Qu.:6.61 ## Max. :65.0 Max. :18795 Max. :8.83 Max. :8.87 ## ## z ## Min. :2.33 ## 1st Qu.:2.92 ## Median :3.55 ## Mean :3.57 ## 3rd Qu.:4.07 ## Max. :5.58 ##
画图实际上是把数据中的变量映射到图形属性上。以克拉(carat)数为X轴变量，价格(price)为Y轴变量。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> small, mapping <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> carat, y <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> price<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
上面这行代码把数据映射XY坐标轴上，需要告诉ggplot2，这些数据要映射成什么样的几何对象，下面以散点为例：
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
几何对象将在下面的小节介绍，这一节，关注的是数据和图形属性之间的映射。
如果想将切工（cut）映射到形状属性。只需要：
12<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>small, mapping<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>carat, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, shape<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
再比如我想将钻石的颜色（color）映射颜色属性：
12<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>small, mapping<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>carat, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, shape<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a>, colour<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
几何对象（Geometric）
在上面的例子中，各种属性映射由ggplot函数执行，只需要加一个图层，使用geom_point()告诉ggplot要画散点，于是所有的属性都映射到散点上。
geom_point()完成的就是几何对象的映射，ggplot2提供了各种几何对象映射，如geom_histogram用于直方图，geom_bar用于画柱状图，geom_boxplot用于画箱式图等等。
不同的几何对象，要求的属性会有些不同，这些属性也可以在几何对象映射时提供，比如上一图，也可以用以下语法来画：
12<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>carat, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, shape<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a>, colour<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
ggplot2支持图层，我通常把不同的图层中共用的映射提供给ggplot函数，而某一几何对象才需要的映射参数提供给geom_xxx函数。
这一小节我们来看一下各种常用的几何对象。
直方图
直方图最容易，提供一个x变量，画出数据的分布。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_histogram<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
同样可以根据另外的变量给它填充颜色，比如按不同的切工：
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_histogram<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
也可以将其分开，side-by-side地画直方图。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_histogram<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, position<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"dodge"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
还可以使用position="fill"，按照相对比例来画。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_histogram<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, position<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"fill"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
柱状图
柱状图非常适合于画分类变量。在这里以透明度（clarity）变量为例。按照不同透明度的钻石的数目画柱状图。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_bar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>clarity<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
柱状图两个要素，一个是分类变量，一个是数目，也就是柱子的高度。数目在这里不用提供，因为ggplot2会通过x变量计算各个分类的数目。
当然你想提供也是可以的，通过stat参数，可以让geom_bar按指定高度画图，比如以下代码：
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_bar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/LETTERS" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>LETTERS</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">:</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">:</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, stat<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"identity"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
柱状图和直方图是很像的，直方图把连续型的数据按照一个个等长的分区（bin）来切分，然后计数，画柱状图。而柱状图是分类数据，按类别计数。我们可以用前面直方图的参数来画side-by-side的柱状图，填充颜色或者按比例画图，它们是高度一致的。
柱状图是用来表示计数数据的，但在生物界却被经常拿来表示均值，加上误差来表示数据分布，这可以通常图层来实现，我将在图层一节中给出实例。
密度函数图
说到直方图，就不得不说密度函数图，数据和映射和直方图是一样的，唯一不同的是几何对象，geom_histogram告诉ggplot要画直方图，而geom_density则说我们要画密度函数图，在我们熟悉前面语法的情况下，很容易画出：
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_density<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, colour<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_density<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price,fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>clarity<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
colour参数指定的是曲线的颜色，而fill是往曲线下面填充颜色。
箱式图
数据量比较大的时候，用直方图和密度函数图是表示数据分布的好方法，而在数据量较少的时候，比如很多的生物实验，很多时候大家都是使用柱状图+errorbar的形式来表示，不过这种方法的信息量非常低，被Nature Methods吐槽，这种情况推荐使用boxplot。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_boxplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price,fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
geom_boxplot将数据映射到箱式图上，上面的代码，我们应该很熟悉了，按切工(cut)分类，对价格(price)变量画箱式图，再分开按照color变量填充颜色。
ggplot2提供了很多的geom_xxx函数，可以满足我们对各种图形绘制的需求。
geom_abline geom_area geom_bar geom_bin2dgeom_blank geom_boxplot geom_contour geom_crossbargeom_density geom_density2d geom_dotplot geom_errorbargeom_errorbarh geom_freqpoly geom_hex geom_histogramgeom_hline geom_jitter geom_line geom_linerangegeom_map geom_path geom_point geom_pointrangegeom_polygon geom_quantile geom_raster geom_rectgeom_ribbon geom_rug geom_segment geom_smoothgeom_step geom_text geom_tile geom_violingeom_vline
标尺（Scale）
前面我们已经看到了，画图就是在做映射，不管是映射到不同的几何对象上，还是映射各种图形属性。这一小节介绍标尺，在对图形属性进行映射之后，使用标尺可以控制这些属性的显示方式，比如坐标刻度，可能通过标尺，将坐标进行对数变换；比如颜色属性，也可以通过标尺，进行改变。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>carat, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price, shape<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a>, colour<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>scale_y_log10<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>scale_colour_manual<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>values<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/grDevices/rainbow" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>rainbow</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
以数据（Data）和映射（Mapping)一节中所画散点图为例，将Y轴坐标进行log10变换，再自己定义颜色为彩虹色。
统计变换（Statistics）
统计变换对原始数据进行某种计算，然后在图上表示出来，例如对散点图上加一条回归线。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>carat, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>scale_y_log10<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>stat_smooth<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
这里就不按颜色、切工来分了，不然ggplot会按不同的分类变量分别做回归，图就很乱，如果我们需要这样做，我们可以使用分面，这个将在后面介绍。
这里，aes所提供的参数，就通过ggplot提供，而不是提供给geom_point，因为ggplot里的参数，相当于全局变量，geom_point()和stat_smooth()都知道x,y的映射，如果只提供给geom_point()，则相当于是局部变量，geom_point知道这种映射，而stat_smooth不知道，当然你再给stat_smooth也提供x,y的映射，不过共用的映射，还是提供给ggplot好。
ggplot2提供了多种统计变换方式：
stat_abline stat_contour stat_identity stat_summarystat_bin stat_density stat_qq stat_summary2dstat_bin2d stat_density2d stat_quantile stat_summary_hexstat_bindot stat_ecdf stat_smooth stat_uniquestat_binhex stat_function stat_spoke stat_vlinestat_boxplot stat_hline stat_sum stat_ydensity
统计变换是非常重要的功能，我们可以自己写函数，基于原始数据做某种计算，并在图上表现出来，也可以通过它改变geom_xxx函数画图的默认统计参数。
比如我在Proteomic investigation of the interactome of FMNL1 in hematopoietic cells unveils a role in calcium-dependent membrane plasticity的图一中，就把boxplot的中位线替换成了平均值来作图。
坐标系统（Coordinante）
坐标系统控制坐标轴，可以进行变换，例如XY轴翻转，笛卡尔坐标和极坐标转换，以满足我们的各种需求。
坐标轴翻转由coord_flip()实现
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_bar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a>, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>coord_flip<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
而转换成极坐标可以由coord_polar()实现：
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_bar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/factor" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>factor</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>coord_polar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>theta<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"y"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
这也是为什么之前介绍常用图形画法时没有提及饼图的原因，饼图实际上就是柱状图，只不过是使用极坐标而已，柱状图的高度，对应于饼图的弧度，饼图并不推荐，因为人类的眼睛比较弧度的能力比不上比较高度（柱状图）
还可以画靶心图：
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_bar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/factor" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>factor</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>coord_polar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
以及风玫瑰图(windrose)
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_bar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>clarity, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>coord_polar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
图层（Layer）
photoshop流行的原因在于PS 3.0时引入图层的概念，ggplot的牛B之处在于使用+号来叠加图层，这堪称是泛型编程的典范。
在前面散点图上，我们已经见识过，加上了一个回归线拟合的图层。
有了图层的概念，使用ggplot画起图来，就更加得心应手。
做为图层的一个很好的例子是蝙蝠侠logo，batman logo由6个函数组成，在下面的例子中，我先画第一个函数，之后再加一个图层画第二个函数，不断重复这一过程，直到六个函数全部画好。
12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/require" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>require</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>ggplot2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>f1 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/function" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>function</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">{</span> y1 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> y2 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> y <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>y1,y2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> d <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> d <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> d<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span>d$y <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">></span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">33</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/return" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>return</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>d<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">}</span> x1 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>d1 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> f1<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x1<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p1 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>d1,aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"red"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>xlab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> ylab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> theme_bw<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> x2 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">4</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">4</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>y2 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">33</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span>x2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">112</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>d2 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x2, y2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p2 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p1 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>d2, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x2,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"yellow"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> x3 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.75</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.75</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>y3 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">9</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">8</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>d3 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x3, y3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p3 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>d3, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x3,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"green"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> x4 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.5</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.75</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.75</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.5</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>y4 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.75</span>d4 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x4,y4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p4 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>d4, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x4,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"steelblue"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> x5 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.5</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.5</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>y5 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/rep" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>rep</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2.25</span>,<a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/length" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>length</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>d5 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x5,y5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p5 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>d5, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x5,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> x6 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>y6 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">6</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">10</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">7</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.5</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.5</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">6</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">10</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sqrt" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sqrt</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">4</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/abs" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>abs</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">14</span>d6 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x6,y6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p6 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>d6,aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x6,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y6<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, colour<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"blue"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> multiplot <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/function" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>function</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>..., plotlist <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> NULL, cols <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/graphics/layout" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>layout</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> NULL<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">{</span> plots <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/list" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>list</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>...<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, plotlist<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> numPlots <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/length" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>length</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>plots<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/if" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>if</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/is.null" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>is.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">null</span></strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/graphics/layout" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>layout</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">{</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/graphics/layout" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>layout</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/matrix" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>matrix</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>, cols <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/ceiling" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>ceiling</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>numPlots<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span>cols<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/ncol" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>ncol</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> cols, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/nrow" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>nrow</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/ceiling" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>ceiling</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>numPlots<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span>cols<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">}</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/if" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>if</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>numPlots <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">{</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/print" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>print</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>plots<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">}</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>else</strong></span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">{</span> grid.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">newpage</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> pushViewport<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>viewport<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/graphics/layout" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>layout</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> grid.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">layout</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/nrow" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>nrow</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/graphics/layout" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>layout</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/ncol" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>ncol</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/graphics/layout" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>layout</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/for" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>for</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>i <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>in</strong></span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">:</span>numPlots<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">{</span> matchidx <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/as.data.frame" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>as.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">data</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/which" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>which</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/graphics/layout" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>layout</strong></span></a> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span> i, arr.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ind</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> TRUE<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/print" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>print</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>plots<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span>i<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span>, vp <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> viewport<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>layout.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">pos</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">row</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> matchidx$row, layout.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">pos</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">col</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> matchidx$col<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">}</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">}</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">}</span> multiplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>p1,p2,p3,p4,p5,p6, cols<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
分面（Facet）
在《ggplot2: 数据分析与图形艺术》一书的翻译中，一开始译者把facet翻译成切片，我在校稿的时候发现了，给他们写信，推荐翻译成分面，如果是slice这个词，翻译成切片倒是很精准，BSD的硬盘分区就叫slice，但facet从词源上看就是小脸的意思，翻译成分面才到位。给他们写信的时候，我还专门查了CNKI翻译助手，发现这词在信息学中，翻成分面早已是固定的。我感觉这是我对这本书翻译的最大贡献，校稿过程中发现的少量小问题远比不上这个关键词意思的把握上。
分面可以让我们按照某种给定的条件，对数据进行分组，然后分别画图。
在统计变换一节中，提到如果按切工分组作回归线，显然图会很乱，有了分面功能，我们可以分别作图。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>carat, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_point<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>colour<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>scale_y_log10<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>facet_wrap<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>~<a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>stat_smooth<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
主题（Theme）
通过ggplot画图之后，我们可能还需要对图进行定制，像title, xlab, ylab这些高频需要用到的，自不用说，ggplot2提供了ggtitle(), xlab()和ylab()来实现。
比如：
12<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>small<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_boxplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cut" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cut</strong></span></a>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>price,fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> ggtitle<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Price vs Cut"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>xlab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Cut"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>ylab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Price"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
但是这个远远满足不了需求，我们需要改变字体，字体大小，坐标轴，背景等各种元素，这需要通过theme()函数来完成。
ggplot2提供一些已经写好的主题，比如theme_grey()为默认主题，我经常用的theme_bw()为白色背景的主题，还有theme_classic()主题，和R的基础画图函数较像。
别外ggthemes包提供了一些主题可供使用，包括：
theme_economist theme_economist_whitetheme_wsj theme_exceltheme_few theme_foundationtheme_igray theme_solarizedtheme_stata theme_tufte
12<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/require" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>require</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>ggthemes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> theme_wsj<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
在2013年发表的文章Putative cobalt- and nickel-binding proteins and motifs in Streptococcus pneumoniae中的图3就是使用theme_stata来画的。
至于如何改变这些元素，我觉得我之前画囧字的博文可以做为例子：
123456789101112131415161718192021222324<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">f <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/function" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>function</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>x <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/by" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>by</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>y <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> f<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>d <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>x,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_rect<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>fill <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"white"</span>,color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"black"</span>,size<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>,aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>NULL, NULL,xmin<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>, xmax<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>,ymin<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>,ymax<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>, alpha<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> geom_line<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/utils/data" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>d, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x,y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, size<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>ylim<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>theme_null <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/function" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>function</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">{</span> theme_bw<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">%+</span>replace<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">%</span>theme<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>axis.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">text</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">x</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>,axis.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">text</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">y</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>,legend.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">position</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"none"</span>,panel.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">grid</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">minor</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>,panel.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">grid</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">major</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>,panel.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">background</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>,axis.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ticks</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>,panel.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">border</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">}</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>theme_null<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>xlab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>ylab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
详细的说明，可以参考?theme的帮助文档。
二维密度图
在这个文档里，为了作图方便，我们使用diamonds数据集的一个子集，如果使用全集，数据量太大，画出来散点就糊了，这种情况可以使用二维密度力来呈现。
1<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>diamonds, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>carat, price<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> stat_density2d<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>fill <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> ..<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">level</span>..<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, geom<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"polygon"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> scale_fill_continuous<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>high<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">'darkred'</span>,low<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">'darkgreen'</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
ggplot2实战
果壳知性里有帖子介绍了个猥琐邪恶的曲线，引来无数宅男用各种工具来画图，甚至于3D动态图都出来了。这里用ggplot2来画。3D版本请猛击此处。
1234567891011121314<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">f <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/function" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>function</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>a, b, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>a <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> y <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/log" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>log</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span>b <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/exp" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>exp</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>b<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span>y <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span> b<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/exp" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>exp</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">4</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> y <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.001</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.01</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>x1 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> f<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">30</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>x2 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> f<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2.5</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">36</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>x3 <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> f<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">50</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> d <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x1,x2,x3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/rep" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>rep</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>y,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, type<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/rep" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>rep</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/LETTERS" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>LETTERS</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">[</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">:</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">]</span>, each<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/length" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>length</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>d, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x,y, color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>type<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> geom_path<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>scale_color_discrete<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/labels" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>labels</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/list" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>list</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/expression" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>expression</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/paste" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>paste</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>alpha<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">3</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">','</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/beta" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>beta</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">30</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/expression" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>expression</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/paste" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>paste</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>alpha<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2.5</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">','</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/beta" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>beta</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">36</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/expression" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>expression</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/paste" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>paste</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>alpha<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">','</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/beta" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>beta</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">==</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">50</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_text<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=-</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.75</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.9, label<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"alpha %.% y %.% log(y) - frac(1, beta) %.% e^-(beta %.% y - frac(beta, e))^4"</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/parse" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>parse</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/T" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>T</strong></span></a>, color<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"black"</span>, size<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">8</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/stats/family" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>family</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Helvetica"</span>, face<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"plain"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>theme_bw<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> xlab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>ylab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> theme<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>legend.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">position</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>.25,.75<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, legend.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">title</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>element_blank<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
其实在这里，我想展示的是对数学符号和公式的处理，另外一个例子是我以前画的根号2。
再来一个蝴蝶图，详见《Modern Applied Statistics with S-PLUS》第一章。
1234<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">theta <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">24</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/pi" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>pi</strong></span></a>, len<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2000</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>radius <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/exp" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>exp</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cos" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cos</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>theta<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">-</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cos" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cos</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">4</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span>theta<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sin" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sin</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>theta<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">/</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">12</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">^</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">5</span>dd <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>radius<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/sin" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sin</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>theta<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>radius<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">*</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/cos" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>cos</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>theta<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>dd, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_path<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>theme_null<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>xlab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>ylab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
这个图，我想展示的是对细节的修改上，在画囧字的时候，把画布上的元素都给清楚了，我把它定义为theme_null主题，在这里，直接应用，我们可以形成自己的画图风格，并写出自己的主题函数固定下来。
最后以生物界中常用的柱状图+误差图为实例，展示ggplot2非常灵活的图层。以我2011年发表的文章Phosphoproteome profile of human lung cancer cell line A549中的westernblot数据为例。这个实例展示了图层，标尺，主题，注释和各种细节微调多种元素。
123456789101112131415161718192021<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Normal <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.83</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.79</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.99</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.69</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>Cancer <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.56</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.56</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.64</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0.52</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>m <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/mean" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>mean</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>Normal<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/mean" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>mean</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>Cancer<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>s <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/stats/sd" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sd</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>Normal<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/stats/sd" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sd</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>Cancer<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>d <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/%3Ca%20href=" http:="" inside-r.org="" r-doc="" utils="" data"="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data</strong></span>.frame"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>data.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">frame</span></strong></span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>V<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Normal"</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Cancer"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/mean" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>mean</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>m, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/stats/sd" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sd</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>s<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>d$V <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/factor" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>factor</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>d$V, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/levels" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>levels</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Normal"</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"Cancer"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> ggplot<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>d, aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>V, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/mean" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>mean</strong></span></a>, fill<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>V, width<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_errorbar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>ymin<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/mean" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>mean</strong></span></a>, ymax<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/mean" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>mean</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/stats/sd" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>sd</strong></span></a>, width<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, position<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>position_dodge<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>width<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.8<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> geom_bar<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>stat<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"identity"</span>, position<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>position_dodge<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>width<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.8<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, colour<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"black"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> scale_fill_manual<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>values<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"grey80"</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"white"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> theme_bw<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>theme<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>legend.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">position</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"none"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> xlab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> ylab<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">""</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> theme<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>axis.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">text</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">x</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> element_text<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>face<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"bold"</span>, size<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">12</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, axis.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">text</span>.<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">y</span> <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span> element_text<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>face<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"bold"</span>, size<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">12</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>scale_y_continuous<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>expand<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0</span>,<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, limits<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/c" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>c</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>, breaks<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/seq" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>seq</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">0</span>, <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.2</span>, <a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/by" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>by</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_segment<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.98, xend<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>, yend<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_segment<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span>.65, xend<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span>, yend<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span>geom_segment<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>aes<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.1</span>, xend<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">2</span>, yend<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span>p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);"><-</span> p <span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">+</span> annotate<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"text"</span>, x<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.5</span>, y<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(204, 102, 204);">1.08</span>, label<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">=</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 0, 255);">"*"</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span><a target=_blank target="_blank" href="http://inside-r.org/r-doc/base/print" style="color: rgb(0, 68, 119); text-decoration: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; outline: none;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153);"><strong>print</strong></span></a><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">(</span>p<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; border: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; color: rgb(0, 136, 0);">)</span></span>
更多实例，可以参考我使用ggplot2实现<25 Recipes for Getting Started with R>一书中的所有图片.
- See more at: http://ygc.name/2014/05/11/use-ggplot2/#sthash.kQRKE3Tv.dpuf
Ref: http://ygc.name/2014/05/11/use-ggplot2/
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