Lisp入门教程

   Common LISP Hints
                         Geoffrey J. Gordon
                        <[e-mail]>
                      Friday, February 5, 1993

                           Modified by
                           Bruno Haible
               <[e-mail]>

                          简体中文版翻译：
                               刘鑫
                       <[e-mail]>

Note: This tutorial introduction to Common Lisp was written for the
CMU environment, so some of the details of running lisp toward the end
may differ from site to site.

注意：这份 Common Lisp 入门教程是针对 CMU
环境编写，所以在其它环境运行
LISP时可能会有细节上的区别。

Further Information

附：

The best LISP textbook I know of is

 Guy L. Steele Jr. _Common LISP: the Language_. Digital Press. 1984.

据我所知最好的 Lisp 书籍是：
 Guy L. Steele Jr. _Common LISP: the Language_. Digital Press. 1984.

The first edition is easier to read; the second describes a more recent
standard. (The differences between the two standards shouldn't affect
casual programmers.)

第一版很容易阅读，第二版介绍了更新的标准。（两个标准的差异很

小，对于粗
心的程序员没有什么区别。）

A book by Dave Touretsky has also been recommended to me, although I
haven't read it, so I can't say anything about it.

我还记得 Dave Touretsky
写了一本，不过我从来没读过，所以不能对那本书
发表评论。

Symbols

符号

A symbol is just a string of characters. There are restrictions on what
you can include in a symbol and what the first character can be, but as
long as you stick to letters, digits, and hyphens, you'll be safe.
(Except that if you use only digits and possibly an initial hyphen,
LISP will think you typed an integer rather than a symbol.) Some
examples of symbols:

符号仅仅是字符串。你可以在符号中包含字母、数字、连接符等等，唯一的限制就
是要以字母开头。（如果你只输入数字，最多再以一个连接符开头的话，LISP会认
为你输入了一个整数而不是符号。）例如：

       a
       b
       c1
       foo
       bar
       baaz-quux-garply

Some things you can do with symbols follow. (Things after a ">" prompt
are what you type to the LISP interpreter, while other things are what
the LISP interpreter prints back to you. The ";" is LISP's comment
character: everything from a ";" to the end of line is ignored.)

接下来我们可以做些事情。（">"标记表示你向LISP输入的东西，其它的是LISP
打印返回给你的。";"是LISP的注释符：";"后面的整行都会被忽略。）

> (setq a 5)            ;store a number as the value of a symbol
5
> a                     ;take the value of a symbol
5
> (let ((a 6)) a)       ;bind the value of a symbol temporarily to 6
6
> a                     ;the value returns to 5 once the let is finished
5
> (+ a 6)               ;use the value of a symbol as an argument to a function
11
> b                     ;try to take the value of a symbol which has no value
Error: Attempt to take the value of the unbound symbol B

There are two special symbols, t and nil. The value of t is defined
always to be t, and the value of nil is defined always to be nil. LISP
uses t and nil to represent true and false. An example of this use is
in the if statement, described more fully later:

有两个特殊的符号， t 和 nil 。 t 的值总是定义为 t
，nil 的值总是定义为
nil 。LISP用 t 和 nil 代表 true 和
false。以下是使用这个功能的 if 语句
，后面再做详细说明：

> (if t 5 6)
5
> (if nil 5 6)
6
> (if 4 5 6)
5

The last example is odd but correct: nil means false, and anything else
means true. (Unless we have a reason to do otherwise, we use t to mean
true, just for the sake of clarity.)

最后一个例子看起来很怪，但是没有错：nil 代表 false
，其它任意值代表 true。
（为了代码清晰，在没有什么特别原因的情况下，我们用t代表true。）

Symbols like t and nil are called self-evaluating symbols, because
they evaluate to themselves. There is a whole class of self-evaluating
symbols called keywords; any symbol whose name starts with a colon is a
keyword. (See below for some uses for keywords.) Some examples:

t 和 nil
这样的符号被称为自解析符号，因为他们解析为自身。自解析符号称为
关键字；任一以冒号开头的符号都是关键字。（下面是一些关键字的应用）如下
所示：

> :this-is-a-keyword
:THIS-IS-A-KEYWORD
> :so-is-this
:SO-IS-THIS
> :me-too
:ME-TOO



Numbers

数值

An integer is a string of digits optionally preceded by + or -. A real
number looks like an integer, except that it has a decimal point and
optionally can be written in scientific notation. A rational looks like
two integers with a / between them. LISP supports complex numbers,
which are written #c(r i) (where r is the real part and i is the
imaginary part). A number is any of the above. Here are some numbers:

数值类型是数字文本，可能会以 + 或 -
开头。实数和整数很相像，但是它带有
小数点，还可能写成科学计数法。有理数就像是两个整数之间带有一个/。LISP支
持复数，写为#c(r
i)（r表示实部，i表示虚部）。以上统称为数值。下面是一
些数值：

       5
       17
       -34
       +6
       3.1415
       1.722e-15
       #c(1.722e-15 0.75)

The standard arithmetic functions are all available: +, -, *, /, floor,
ceiling, mod, sin, cos, tan, sqrt, exp, expt, and so forth. All of them
accept any kind of number as an argument. +, -, *, and / return a
number according to type contagion: an integer plus a rational is a
rational, a rational plus a real is a real, and a real plus a complex
is a complex. Here are some examples:

标准的计算函数包括： +, -, *, /, floor, ceiling, mod, sin,
cos, tan,
sqrt, exp, expt
等等。所有这些函数都可以接受任意数值类型参数。+、-、*
和
/返回尽可能大的类型：一个整数加一个有理数返回有理数，一个有理数加一个实数
是一个实数，一个实数加一个复数是一个复数。如下所示：

> (+ 3 3/4)             ;type contagion
15/4
> (exp 1)               ;e
2.7182817
> (exp 3)               ;e*e*e
20.085537
> (expt 3 4.2)          ;exponent with a base other than e
100.90418
> (+ 5 6 7 (* 8 9 10))  ;the fns +-*/ all accept multiple arguments

There is no limit to the absolute value of an integer except the memory
size of your computer. Be warned that computations with bignums (as
large integers are called) can be slow. (So can computations with
rationals, especially compared to the corresponding computations with
small integers or floats.)

对于整数来说，唯一的大小限制就是机器的内存。当然大数值运算（这
会调用大整数）可能会很慢。（因此我们可以计算有理数，尤其是小整数和浮点数
的比较运算）

Conses

A cons is just a two-field record. The fields are called "car" and
"cdr", for historical reasons. (On the first machine where LISP was
implemented, there were two instructions CAR and CDR which stood for
"contents of address register" and "contents of decrement register".
Conses were implemented using these two registers.)

cons
就是一个包含两个字段的记录。出于历史原因，两个字段分别被称为
"car"和"cdr"。（在第一台实现LISP的机器上，用CAR和CDR代表"地址寄
存器的内容"和"指令寄存器的内容"。Conses的实现主要依靠这两个寄存器。）

Conses are easy to use:

Conses很容易使用：

> (cons 4 5)            ;Allocate a cons. Set the car to 4 and the cdr to 5.
(4 . 5)
> (cons (cons 4 5) 6)
((4 . 5) . 6)
> (car (cons 4 5))
4
> (cdr (cons 4 5))
5



Lists

You can build many structures out of conses. Perhaps the simplest is a
linked list: the car of each cons points to one of the elements of the
list, and the cdr points either to another cons or to nil. You can
create such a linked list with the list fuction:

你可以构造conses之外的结构。可能最简单的是链表：每一个cons的car指向链表
的一个元素，cdr指向另一个cons或者nil。我们可以使用list函数构造链表。

> (list 4 5 6)
(4 5 6)

Notice that LISP prints linked lists a special way: it omits some of
the periods and parentheses. The rule is: if the cdr of a cons is nil,
LISP doesn't bother to print the period or the nil; and if the cdr of
cons A is cons B, then LISP doesn't bother to print the period for cons
A or the parentheses for cons B. So:

需要注意的是 LISP
用一种特殊的方式打印链表：它忽略掉某些分隔和括号。
规则如下：如果某个 cons 的 cdr 是 nil ，LISP 不打印 nil
和段标记，如果
cons A 的 cdr 是 cons B，LISP不打印 cons B 的括号和 cons A
的分隔符。
如下：

> (cons 4 nil)
(4)
> (cons 4 (cons 5 6))
(4 5 . 6)
> (cons 4 (cons 5 (cons 6 nil)))
(4 5 6)

The last example is exactly equivalent to the call (list 4 5 6). Note
that nil now means the list with no elements: the cdr of (a b), a list
with 2 elements, is (b), a list with 1 element; and the cdr of (b), a
list with 1 element, is nil, which therefore must be a list with no
elements.

最后一个例子相当于调用(list 4 5 6)。要注意的是这里
nil 表示没有元素的空
链表：包含两个元素的链表(a
b)中，cdr是(b)，一个含有单个元素的链表；包含
一个元素的链表(b)，cdr是nil，故此这里必然是一个没有元素的链表。

The car and cdr of nil are defined to be nil.

nil 的 car 和 cdr 定义为nil。

If you store your list in a variable, you can make it act like a stack:

如果你把链表存储在变量中，可以将它当作堆栈来使用：

> (setq a nil)
NIL
> (push 4 a)
(4)
> (push 5 a)
(5 4)
> (pop a)
5
> a
(4)
> (pop a)
4
> (pop a)
NIL
> a
NIL



Functions

You saw one example of a function above. Here are some more:

前面我们讨论过一些函数的例子，这里还有更多：

> (+ 3 4 5 6)                   ;this function takes any number of arguments
18
> (+ (+ 3 4) (+ (+ 4 5) 6))     ;isn't prefix notation fun?
22
> (defun foo (x y) (+ x y 5))   ;defining a function
FOO
> (foo 5 0)                     ;calling a function
10
> (defun fact (x)               ;a recursive function
   (if (> x 0)
     (* x (fact (- x 1)))
     1))
FACT
> (fact 5)
120
> (defun a (x) (if (= x 0) t (b (- x))))        ;mutually recursive functions
A
> (defun b (x) (if (> x 0) (a (- x 1)) (a (+ x 1))))
B
> (a 5)
T
> (defun bar (x)                ;a function with multiple statements in
   (setq x (* x 3))            ;its body -- it will return the value
   (setq x (/ x 2))            ;returned by its final statement
   (+ x 4))
BAR
> (bar 6)
13

When we defined foo, we gave it two arguments, x and y. Now when we
call foo, we are required to provide exactly two arguments: the first
will become the value of x for the duration of the call to foo, and the
second will become the value of y for the duration of the call. In
LISP, most variables are lexically scoped; that is, if foo calls bar
and bar tries to reference x, bar will not get foo's value for x.

当我们定义函数的时候，设定了两个参数，x 和
y。现在当我们调用 foo，需要
给出两个参数：第一个在 foo 函数调用时成为 x
的值，第二个成为 y 的值。
在LISP中，大部分的变量都是局部的，如果 foo 调用了
bar ，bar中虽然使用了
名字为x的引用，但bar 得不到 foo 中的 x 。

The process of assigning a symbol a value for the duration of some
lexical scope is called binding.

在调用过程中给一个符号赋值的操作被称为绑定。

You can specify optional arguments for your functions. Any argument
after the symbol &optional is optional:

我们可以给函数指定可选参数，在符号&optional
之后的参数是可选参数：

> (defun bar (x &optional y) (if y x 0))
BAR
> (defun baaz (&optional (x 3) (z 10)) (+ x z))
BAAZ
> (bar 5)
0
> (bar 5 t)
5
> (baaz 5)
15
> (baaz 5 6)
11
> (baaz)
13

It is legal to call the function bar with either one or two arguments.
If it is called with one argument, x will be bound to the value of that
argument and y will be bound to nil; if it is called with two
arguments, x and y will be bound to the values of the first and second
argument, respectively.

bar函数的调用规则是要给出一个或两个参数。如果它用一个参数调用，x
将会绑
定到这个参数值上，而 y 就是
nil；如果用两个参数调用它，x和y会分别绑定
到第一和第二个值上。

The function baaz has two optional arguments. It specifies a default
value for each of them: if the caller specifies only one argument, z
will be bound to 10 instead of to nil, and if the caller specifies no
arguments, x will be bound to 3 and z to 10.

baaz
函数有两个可选参数。它为它们分别提供了默认值：如果调用者只给出了一
个参数，z会绑定为10而不是nil，如果调用者没有给出参数，x会绑定为3，而z绑
定为10。

You can make your function accept any number of arguments by ending its
argument list with an &rest parameter. LISP will collect all arguments
not otherwise accounted for into a list and bind the &rest parameter to
that list. So:

在参数列表的最后设置一个 &rest
参数，可以使我们的函数接受任意数目的参数。
LISP把所有的附加参数都放进一个链表并绑定到 &rest
参数。如下：

> (defun foo (x &rest y) y)
FOO
> (foo 3)
NIL
> (foo 4 5 6)
(5 6)

Finally, you can give your function another kind of optional argument
called a keyword argument. The caller can give these arguments in any
order, because they're labelled with keywords.

最后，我们可以为函数指定一种被称为关键字参数的可选参数。调用者可以用
任意顺序调用这些参数，因为他们已经通过关键字标示出来。

> (defun foo (&key x y) (cons x y))
FOO
> (foo :x 5 :y 3)
(5 . 3)
> (foo :y 3 :x 5)
(5 . 3)
> (foo :y 3)
(NIL . 3)
> (foo)
(NIL)

An &key parameter can have a default value too:

关键字参数也可以有默认值：

> (defun foo (&key (x 5)) x)
FOO
> (foo :x 7)
7
> (foo)
5



Printing

Some functions can cause output. The simplest one is print, which
prints its argument and then returns it.

某些函数可以用来输出。最简单的一个是
print，它可以打印参数并且返回
它们。

> (print 3)
3
3

The first 3 above was printed, the second was returned.

首先打印3，然后返回它。

If you want more complicated output, you will need to use format.
Here's an example:

如果你需要更复杂的输出，可能会用到
format，这里有个例子：

> (format t "An atom: ~S~%and a list: ~S~%and an integer: ~D~%"
         nil (list 5) 6)
An atom: NIL
and a list: (5)
and an integer: 6

The first argument to format is either t, nil, or a stream. T specifies
output to the terminal. Nil means not to print anything but to return a
string containing the output instead. Streams are general places for
output to go: they can specify a file, or the terminal, or another
program. This handout will not describe streams in any further detail.

第一个参数可以是 t，nil
或者一个流。t意味着输出到终端；nil意味着不打印
任何东西，而是把它返回。流是用于输出的通用方式：它可以是一个指定的文件，
或者一个终端，或者另一个程序。这里不再详细描述流的更多细节。

The second argument is a formatting template, which is a string
optionally containing formatting directives.

第二个参数是个格式化模版，即一个包含格式化设定的字符串。

All remaining arguments may be referred to by the formatting
directives. LISP will replace the directives with some appropriate
characters based on the arguments to which they refer and then print
the resulting string.

所有其它的参数由格式化设定引用。LISP会根据标示所引用的参数，将其替换
为合适的字符，并返回结果字符串。

Format always returns nil unless its first argument is nil, in which
case it prints nothing and returns a string.

如果format的第一个参数是 nil
，它返回一个字符串，什么也不打印，否则
它总是返回 nil 。

There are three different directives in the above example: ~S, ~D, and
~%. The first one accepts any LISP object and is replaced by a printed
representation of that object (the same representation which is
produced by print). The second one accepts only integers. The third one
doesn't refer to an argument; it is always replaced by a carriage
return.

前面的例子中有三种不同的标示：~S，~D和~%。第一个接受任意LISP对象并且将
其替换为这个对象的打印描述（与使用print打印出的描述信息相同）。第二个

Another useful directive is ~~, which is replaced by a single ~.

另一个常用的标示是~~，它替换为单个~。

Refer to a LISP manual for (many, many) additional formatting
directives.

LISP手册中介绍了其它（很多，很多）的格式化标示。

Forms and the Top-Level Loop

The things which you type to the LISP interpreter are called forms; the
LISP interpreter repeatedly reads a form, evaluates it, and prints the
result. This procedure is called the read-eval-print loop.

我们输入到LISP解释器的东西被称为语句；LISP解释器逐条循环读取每条语句，
进行解析，将结果打印出来。这个过程被称为读取-解析-打印循环。

Some forms will cause errors. After an error, LISP will put you into
the debugger so you can try to figure out what caused the error. LISP
debuggers are all different; but most will respond to the command
"help" or ":help" by giving some form of help.

某些语句会发生错误，LISP会引领我们进入调试器，以便我们找出错误原因。
LISP的各种调试器有很多差异，不过使用"help"或":help"命令就会给出一
些语句帮助。

In general, a form is either an atom (for example, a symbol, an
integer, or a string) or a list. If the form is an atom, LISP evaluates
it immediately. Symbols evaluate to their value; integers and strings
evaluate to themselves. If the form is a list, LISP treats its first
element as the name of a function; it evaluates the remaining elements
recursively, and then calls the function with the values of the
remaining elements as arguments.

通常，一个语句是一个原子（例如，一个符号或者整数，或者字符串）或者一个列表，
如果换某个语句是原子，LISP立即解析它。符号解析为它们的值；整数和字符串解析
为它们自身。如果语句是一个列表，LISP视它的第一个元素为函数名；它递归的解析
其余的元素，然后将它们的值作为参数来调用这个函数。

For example, if LISP sees the form (+ 3 4), it treats + as the name of
a function. It then evaluates 3 to get 3 and 4 to get 4; finally it
calls + with 3 and 4 as the arguments. The + function returns 7, which
LISP prints.

例如，如果LISP遇到语句 (+ 3 4)，它尝试将 +
作为函数名。然后将3解析为3，4解
析为4；最后用3和4作为参数调用+。LISP打印出 +
函数的返回值7。

The top-level loop provides some other conveniences; one particularly
convenient convenience is the ability to talk about the results of
previously typed forms. LISP always saves its most recent three
results; it stores them as the values of the symbols *, **, and ***.
For example:

顶级循环还提供了一些其它的便利；一个特别方便的地方就是获取以前输入的
语句的结果。LISP总会保存最近三个结果；它将它们保存在*，**和***三个符
号的值中，例如：

> 3
3
> 4
4
> 5
5
> ***
3
> ***
4
> ***
5
> **
4
> *
4



Special forms

There are a number of special forms which look like function calls but
aren't. These include control constructs such as if statements and do
loops; assignments like setq, setf, push, and pop; definitions such as
defun and defstruct; and binding constructs such as let. (Not all of
these special forms have been mentioned yet. See below.)

有几个特殊语句看起来像函数调用，但其实不是。这里面包括流程控制语句，例
如 if 语句和 do loops；赋值语句，例如 setq，
setf，push和pop；定义语句
例如 defun 和 defstruct；以及绑定构造，如
let。（这里没有提及所有的特殊
语句。我们继续。）

One useful special form is the quote form: quote prevents its argument
from being evaluated. For example:

一个很有用的特殊语句是 quote
：quote取消其参数的绑定状态。例如：

> (setq a 3)
3
> a
3
> (quote a)
A
> 'a                    ;'a is an abbreviation for (quote a)
A

Another similar special form is the function form: function causes its
argument to be interpreted as a function rather than being evaluated.
For example:

另一个类似的语句是
fuction：function使得解释器将其参数视为一个函数而不是
解析值，例如：

> (setq + 3)
3
> +
3
> '+
+
> (function +)
#
> #'+                   ;#'+ is an abbreviation for (function +)
#

The function special form is useful when you want to pass a function as
an argument to another function. See below for some examples of
functions which take functions as arguments.

当我们需要将一个函数作为参数传递给另一个函数时会用到
function 语句。后面
有些示例函数将函数作为参数。



Binding

Binding is lexically scoped assignment. It happens to the variables in
a function's parameter list whenever the function is called: the formal
parameters are bound to the actual parameters for the duration of the
function call. You can bind variables anywhere in a program with the
let special form, which looks like this:

绑定是词汇作用域赋值（汗，怎么读怎么别扭--译者）。每当函数调用时，它就
发生于函数的参数列变量中：形式参数被取代为调用函数时的实际参数。你可以在
程序中随处绑定变量，就像下面这样：

       (let ((var1 val1)
             (var2 val2)
             ...)
         body)

Let binds var1 to val1, var2 to val2, and so forth; then it executes
the statements in its body. The body of a let follows exactly the same
rules that a function body does. Some examples:

let把val1绑定到var1，把val2绑定到var2，依次类推；然后在它的程序体中执
行语句。let的程序体与函数体的执行规则完全相同。例如：

> (let ((a 3)) (+ a 1))
4
> (let ((a 2)
       (b 3)
       (c 0))
   (setq c (+ a b))
   c)
5
> (setq c 4)
4
> (let ((c 5)) c)
5
> c
4

Instead of (let ((a nil) (b nil)) ...), you can write (let (a b) ...).

你可以用 (let (a b) ...) 代替 (let ((a nil) (b nil)) ...) 。

The val1, val2, etc. inside a let cannot reference the variables var1,
var2, etc. that the let is binding. For example,

val1，val2等等。在 let 内部不能引用
var1，var2等等let正在绑定的成员。
例如（简而言之，在参数表中，形式参数之间不能互相引用--译者）：

> (let ((x 1)
       (y (+ x 1)))
   y)
Error: Attempt to take the value of the unbound symbol X

If the symbol x already has a global value, stranger happenings will
result:

如果符号x已经有了一个全局值，会产生一些奇怪的结果：

> (setq x 7)
7
> (let ((x 1)
       (y (+ x 1)))
   y)
8

The let* special form is just like let except that it allows values to
reference variables defined earlier in the let*. For example,

let* 语句类似于 let，但它允许引用之前在 let*
中定义的变量的值。例如：

> (setq x 7)
7
> (let* ((x 1)
        (y (+ x 1)))
   y)
2

The form
语句

       (let* ((x a)
              (y b))
         ...)

is equivalent to
等价于

       (let ((x a))
         (let ((y b))
           ...))



Dynamic Scoping

The let and let* forms provide lexical scoping, which is what you
expect if you're used to programming in C or Pascal. Dynamic scoping is
what you get in BASIC: if you assign a value to a dynamically scoped
variable, every mention of that variable returns that value until you
assign another value to the same variable.

与我们在C或Pascal中编写程序不同，let 和 let*
语句提供了词汇作用域。动态
作用域是我们在BASIC里用的那种：如果我们给一个动态作用域变量赋了值，那么
所有对这个变量的访问都会取得这个值，直到给同一个变量赋了另一个值为止。

In LISP, dynamically scoped variables are called special variables. You
can declare a special variable with the defvar special form. Here are
some examples of lexically and dynamically scoped variables.

在LISP中，动态作用域变量被称为特化变量 。你可以用
special 语句 defvar
定义一个特化变量。这里有一些词汇化和动态作用域变量的示例。

In this example, the function check-regular references a regular (ie,
lexically scoped) variable. Since check-regular is lexically outside of
the let which binds regular, check-regular returns the variable's
global value.

在以下示例中，check-regular 函数引用一个 regular
（也就是一个词汇作用域）
变量。因为 check-regular 在绑定 regular 的 let
外部词汇化，check-regular
返回变量的全局值。

> (setq regular 5)
5
> (defun check-regular () regular)
CHECK-REGULAR
> (check-regular)
5
> (let ((regular 6)) (check-regular))
5

In this example, the function check-special references a special (ie,
dynamically scoped) variable. Since the call to check-special is
temporally inside of the let which binds special, check-special returns
the variable's local value.

在这个例子中，函数 check-special 引用了一个
特化（动态作用域）变量。
因此 check-special 调用临时发生于特化绑定的 let
内部，check-special
返回变量的局部值。

> (defvar *special* 5)
*SPECIAL*
> (defun check-special () *special*)
CHECK-SPECIAL
> (check-special)
5
> (let ((*special* 6)) (check-special))
6

By convention, the name of a special variable begins and ends with a *.
Special variables are chiefly used as global variables, since
programmers usually expect lexical scoping for local variables and
dynamic scoping for global variables.

方便起见，特化变量以一个 *
开始和结束。特化变量主要用于全局变量，因为
程序员通常期望局部变量使用词汇作用域，全局变量使用动态作用域。

For more information on the difference between lexical and dynamic
scoping, see _Common LISP: the Language_.

词汇和动态作用域的更多差异参见《Common LISP: the
Language》。

Arrays

The function make-array makes an array. The aref function accesses its
elements. All elements of an array are initially set to nil. For
example:

make-array 函数定义一个数组。aref
函数访问它的元素。所有元素初始化为nil。
例如：

> (make-array '(3 3))
#2a((NIL NIL NIL) (NIL NIL NIL) (NIL NIL NIL))
> (aref * 1 1)
NIL
> (make-array 4)        ;1D arrays don't need the extra parens
#(NIL NIL NIL NIL)

Array indices always start at 0.

数组索引从0开始。

See below for how to set the elements of an array.

以后讨论如何设置一个数组的元素。

Strings

A string is a sequence of characters between double quotes. LISP
represents a string as a variable-length array of characters. You can
write a string which contains a double quote by preceding the quote
with a backslash; a double backslash stands for a single backslash. For
example:

字符串是包含在双引号之间的字符串。LISP
用字符串代表一个变长字符数组。
我们可以用一个反斜杠加一个双引号来表示字符串中的双引号，两个反斜杠表示
一个单独的反斜杠。例如：

       "abcd" has 4 characters
       "\"" has 1 character
       "\\" has 1 character

Here are some functions for dealing with strings:

有一些函数可以用于操作字符串：

> (concatenate 'string "abcd" "efg")
"abcdefg"
> (char "abc" 1)
#\b                     ;LISP writes characters preceded by #\
> (aref "abc" 1)
#\b                     ;remember, strings are really arrays

The concatenate function can actually work with any type of sequence:

concatenate 函数可以用于连接任何类型的序列：

> (concatenate 'string '(#\a #\b) '(#\c))
"abc"
> (concatenate 'list "abc" "de")
(#\a #\b #\c #\d #\e)
> (concatenate 'vector '#(3 3 3) '#(3 3 3))
#(3 3 3 3 3 3)



Structures

LISP structures are analogous to C structs or Pascal records. Here is
an example:

LISP 结构类似于C结构或Pasacal记录。如下所示：

> (defstruct foo
   bar
   baaz
   quux)
FOO

This example defines a data type called foo which is a structure
containing 3 fields. It also defines 4 functions which operate on this
data type: make-foo, foo-bar, foo-baaz, and foo-quux. The first one
makes a new object of type foo; the others access the fields of an
object of type foo. Here is how to use these functions:

这个示例定义了一个名为 foo
的数据类型，它是一个带有三个字段的结构。
它同时定义了4个函数用于操作这个数据类型：make-foo，foo-ba，foo-baaz和
foo-quux。第一个函数构造了一个foo类型的新对象，另外三个用于访问一个
foo类型的对象。以下是这些函数的用法：

> (make-foo)
#s(FOO :BAR NIL :BAAZ NIL :QUUX NIL)
> (make-foo :baaz 3)
#s(FOO :BAR NIL :BAAZ 3 :QUUX NIL)
> (foo-bar *)
NIL
> (foo-baaz **)
3

The make-foo function can take a keyword argument for each of the
fields a structure of type foo can have. The field access functions
each take one argument, a structure of type foo, and return the
appropriate field.

meke-foo
函数可以使用foo结构类型的字段作为关键字参数。字段访问函数以
foo类型的结构为参数，返回对应的字段。

See below for how to set the fields of a structure.

以后讨论如何设置一个结构的字段。



Setf

Certain forms in LISP naturally define a memory location. For example,
if the value of x is a structure of type foo, then (foo-bar x) defines
the bar field of the value of x. Or, if the value of y is a one-
dimensional array, (aref y 2) defines the third element of y.

LISP确认语句的时间，自然就会定义一个内存区域。例如，如果x的值是foo类型
的一个结构，(foo-bar
x)定义x中bar字段的值。或者，如果y是一个一维数组，
(aref y 2)定义y的第三个元素。

The setf special form uses its first argument to define a place in
memory, evaluates its second argument, and stores the resulting value
in the resulting memory location. For example,

setf
语句用于在内存中将它的第一个参数定位到第二个参数上，并且返回内存
区域的结果值。例如：

> (setq a (make-array 3))
#(NIL NIL NIL)
> (aref a 1)
NIL
> (setf (aref a 1) 3)
3
> a
#(NIL 3 NIL)
> (aref a 1)
3
> (defstruct foo bar)
FOO
> (setq a (make-foo))
#s(FOO :BAR NIL)
> (foo-bar a)
NIL
> (setf (foo-bar a) 3)
3
> a
#s(FOO :BAR 3)
> (foo-bar a)
3

Setf is the only way to set the fields of a structure or the elements
of an array.

setf是给结构的字段或者数组的元素赋值的唯一方法。

Here are some more examples of setf and related functions.

这里还有一些关于setf和相关函数的示例。

> (setf a (make-array 1))       ;setf on a variable is equivalent to setq
#(NIL)
> (push 5 (aref a 1))           ;push can act like setf
(5)
> (pop (aref a 1))              ;so can pop
5
> (setf (aref a 1) 5)
5
> (incf (aref a 1))             ;incf reads from a place, increments,
6                               ;and writes back
> (aref a 1)
6



Booleans and Conditionals

LISP uses the self-evaluating symbol nil to mean false. Anything other
than nil means true. Unless we have a reason not to, we usually use the
self-evaluating symbol t to stand for true.

LISP 用自解析符号 nil 来代表 false。任何 nil
之外的其它东西都代表 true。
除非有什么特别的原因，我们总是使用 true
的标准自解析符号 t。

LISP provides a standard set of logical functions, for example and, or,
and not. The and and or connectives are short-circuiting: and will not
evaluate any arguments to the right of the first one which evaluates to
nil, while or will not evaluate any arguments to the right of the first
one which evaluates to t.

LISP提供了一个逻辑运算的标准函数集，例如，与、或、非。与和或支持短路算法：
在遇到第一个nil后不再解析右面的参数，而与在遇到第一个t后也不再解析右面的
参数。

LISP also provides several special forms for conditional execution. The
simplest of these is if. The first argument of if determines whether
the second or third argument will be executed:

LISP还为条件控制提供了几个特殊语句。最简单的是if。if语句的第一个参数决定了
执行第二或第三个参数中的哪一个：

> (if t 5 6)
5
> (if nil 5 6)
6
> (if 4 5 6)
5

If you need to put more than one statement in the then or else clause
of an if statement, you can use the progn special form. Progn executes
each statement in its body, then returns the value of the final one.

如果你需要在then或else块中放置超过一行的语句，可以使用特殊语句
progn。
Progn
在它的程序体内依次执行每一条语句，返回最后一个结果。

> (setq a 7)
7
> (setq b 0)
0
> (setq c 5)
5
> (if (> a 5)
   (progn
     (setq a (+ b 7))
     (setq b (+ c 8)))
   (setq b 4))
13

An if statement which lacks either a then or an else clause can be
written using the when or unless special form:

一个没有 else 或 when 的语句可以写为 when 或 unless
语句。

> (when t 3)
3
> (when nil 3)
NIL
> (unless t 3)
NIL
> (unless nil 3)
3

When and unless, unlike if, allow any number of statements in their
bodies. (Eg, (when x a b c) is equivalent to (if x (progn a b c)).)

与 if 不同，when 和 unless
允许在程序体内放置任意多的语句。（例如，
(when x a b c) 等价于 (if x (progn a b c))）

> (when t
   (setq a 5)
   (+ a 6))
11

More complicated conditionals can be defined using the cond special
form, which is equivalent to an if ... else if ... fi construction.

更复杂的条件控制可以用 cond
语句定义实现，它定价于一个 if ... else
if ... fi 条件。

A cond consists of the symbol cond followed by a number of cond
clauses, each of which is a list. The first element of a cond clause is
the condition; the remaining elements (if any) are the action. The cond
form finds the first clause whose condition evaluates to true (ie,
doesn't evaluate to nil); it then executes the corresponding action and
returns the resulting value. None of the remaining conditions are
evaluated; nor are any actions except the one corresponding to the
selected condition. For example:

一个 cond 由 symbol
符号和其后的若干条件分支组成，每一个分支是一个
list。
cond
分支的第一个元素是条件；其它的元素（如果有的话）是动作。cond语句查
找第一个条件解析为 true
的分支，执行其响应动作并返回结果值。其它条件不会
被解析，除了这个响应之外的分支也不会执行。例如：


> (setq a 3)
3
> (cond
  ((evenp a) a)        ;if a is even return a
  ((> a 7) (/ a 2))    ;else if a is bigger than 7 return a/2
  ((< a 5) (- a 1))    ;else if a is smaller than 5 return a-1
  (t 17))              ;else return 17
2

If the action in the selected cond clause is missing, cond returns what
the condition evaluated to:

如果选定的分支没有响应动作，cond
返回条件的解析结果。

> (cond ((+ 3 4)))
7

Here's a clever little recursive function which uses cond. You might be
interested in trying to prove that it terminates for all integers x at
least 1. (If you succeed, please publish the result.)

这里用 cond
巧妙的实现了一个递归函数。你可能会有兴趣证明它对于所有的整数
x 都少有个终结。（如果你成功了，请发表出来。）

> (defun hotpo (x steps)        ;hotpo stands for Half Or Triple Plus One
   (cond
    ((= x 1) steps)
    ((oddp x) (hotpo (+ 1 (* x 3)) (+ 1 steps)))
    (t (hotpo (/ x 2) (+ 1 steps)))))
A
> (hotpo 7 0)
16

The LISP case statement is like a C switch statement:

LISP 的 case 语句类似于 C 的 switch 语句：

> (setq x 'b)
B
> (case x
  (a 5)
  ((d e) 7)
  ((b f) 3)
  (otherwise 9))
3

The otherwise clause at the end means that if x is not a, b, d, e, or
f, the case statement will return 9.

末尾的 otherwise 语句意味着 x
不是a、b、c、d、e、f，case语句将会返回9。

Iteration

The simplest iteration construct in LISP is loop: a loop construct
repeatedly executes its body until it hits a return special form. For
example,

LISP 中最简单的迭代结构是 loop：loop
结构反复执行它的程序体直到到达
一个返回语句，例如：

> (setq a 4)
4
> (loop
  (setq a (+ a 1))
  (when (> a 7) (return a)))
8
> (loop
  (setq a (- a 1))
  (when (< a 3) (return)))
NIL

The next simplest is dolist: dolist binds a variable to the elements of
a list in order and stops when it hits the end of the list.

dolist是下一个最简单的：dolist把一个变量依次绑定到一个列表的各个元素上，
在到达列表结尾时结束。

> (dolist (x '(a b c)) (print x))
A
B
C
NIL

Dolist always returns nil. Note that the value of x in the above
example was never nil: the NIL below the C was the value that dolist
returned, printed by the read-eval-print loop.

Dolist 总是返回nil。注意上例中的 x
永远不会为nil：C后面的NIL是dolist
返回的，它被读取-解析-打印循环所打印。

The most complicated iteration primitive is called do. A do statement
looks like this:

更复杂的迭代称为 do。do语句的示例如下：

> (do ((x 1 (+ x 1))
      (y 1 (* y 2)))
     ((> x 5) y)
   (print y)
   (print 'working))
1
WORKING
2
WORKING
4
WORKING
8
WORKING
16
WORKING
32

The first part of a do specifies what variables to bind, what their
initial values are, and how to update them. The second part specifies a
termination condition and a return value. The last part is the body. A
do form binds its variables to their initial values like a let, then
checks the termination condition. As long as the condition is false, it
executes the body repeatedly; when the condition becomes true, it
returns the value of the return-value form.

do的第一步是指定绑定的变量，它们的初始值，以及如何更新。第二步是指定一
个终止条件和返回值。最后是程序体。do语句像let一样把它的变量绑定到初始值，
然后校验终止条件。条件为false时，它重复执行程序体；当条件为true，它返回
return-value 语句的值。

The do* form is to do as let* is to let.

do* 语句之于 do 如同 let* 之于 let。


Non-local Exits

The return special form mentioned in the section on iteration is an
example of a nonlocal return. Another example is the return-from form,
which returns a value from the surrounding function:

前一节中迭代示例里的renturn语句是一个无定位返回的示例，另一个是
return-from，它从包围它的函数中返回指定值。

> (defun foo (x)
   (return-from foo 3)
   x)
FOO
> (foo 17)
3

Actually, the return-from form can return from any named block -- it's
just that functions are the only blocks which are named by default. You
can create a named block with the block special form:

实际上，return-from
语句可以从任何已命名的语句块中退出--只是默认情况下
函数是唯一的命名语句块而已。我们可以用 block
语句自己定义一个命名语句块。

> (block foo
   (return-from foo 7)
   3)
7

The return special form can return from any block named nil. Loops are
by default labelled nil, but you can make your own nil-labelled blocks:

return
语句可以从任何nil命名的语句块中返回。默认情况下循环是nil命名，而
我们可以创建自己的nil标记语句块。

> (block nil
   (return 7)
   3)
7

Another form which causes a nonlocal exit is the error form:

另外一个无定位退出语句是 error 语句：

> (error "This is an error")
Error: This is an error

The error form applies format to its arguments, then places you in the
debugger.

error语句格式化它的参数，然后进入调试器。


Funcall, Apply, and Mapcar

Earlier I promised to give some functions which take functions as
arguments. Here they are:

早先我承诺介绍一些可以将函数作为参数调用函数，它们在这里：

> (funcall #'+ 3 4)
7
> (apply #'+ 3 4 '(3 4))
14
> (mapcar #'not '(t nil t nil t nil))
(NIL T NIL T NIL T)

Funcall calls its first argument on its remaining arguments.

funcall 用它的其它参数调用它的第一个参数。

Apply is just like funcall, except that its final argument should be a
list; the elements of that list are treated as if they were additional
arguments to a funcall.

Apply和funcall很相像，不过它的最后一个参数可以是一个列表；这个列表被看
作是funcall的附加参数。

The first argument to mapcar must be a function of one argument; mapcar
applies this function to each element of a list and collects the
results in another list.

mapcar的第一个参数必须是一个单参数的函数；mapcar在列表上逐个元素应用该
函数，并将返回值包含如另一个链表。

Funcall and apply are chiefly useful when their first argument is a
variable. For instance, a search engine could take a heuristic function
as a parameter and use funcall or apply to call that function on a
state description. The sorting functions described later use funcall
to call their comparison functions.

Funcall和apply主要用于第一个参数是变量的场合。例如，搜索引擎把一个启发式
函数作为参数，在一个状态描述上应用funcall或者apply。

Mapcar, along with nameless functions (see below), can replace many
loops.

Mapcar配合匿名函数（后面介绍），可以取代很多循环。

Lambda

If you just want to create a temporary function and don't want to
bother giving it a name, lambda is what you need.

如果你只是想创建一个临时函数，并不想给它一个命名，lambda如你所愿。

> #'(lambda (x) (+ x 3))
(LAMBDA (X) (+ X 3))
> (funcall * 5)
8

The combination of lambda and mapcar can replace many loops. For
example, the following two forms are equivalent:

lambda和mapcar的组合可以取代很多循环，例如，如下的两个语句是等价的：

> (do ((x '(1 2 3 4 5) (cdr x))
      (y nil))
     ((null x) (reverse y))
   (push (+ (car x) 2) y))
(3 4 5 6 7)
> (mapcar #'(lambda (x) (+ x 2)) '(1 2 3 4 5))
(3 4 5 6 7)



Sorting

LISP provides two primitives for sorting: sort and stable-sort.

LISP提供两种主要的排序：排序和稳定排序。

> (sort '(2 1 5 4 6) #'<)
(1 2 4 5 6)
> (sort '(2 1 5 4 6) #'>)
(6 5 4 2 1)

The first argument to sort is a list; the second is a comparison
function. The sort function does not guarantee stability: if there are
two elements a and b such that (and (not (< a b)) (not (< b a))), sort
may arrange them in either order. The stable-sort function is exactly
like sort, except that it guarantees that two equivalent elements
appear in the sorted list in the same order that they appeared in the
original list.

sort的第一个参数是一个列表，第二个是一个比较函数。sort函数不保证稳定性：
如果这里有a和b两个元素，(and (not (< a b)) (not (< b
a)))，sort可能会改
变它们的位置。stable-sort（稳定排序）与sort非常像，不过它确保两个相等
的元素在排序后的列表中的顺序与排序前列表中的顺序相同。

Be careful: sort is allowed to destroy its argument, so if the original
sequence is important to you, make a copy with the copy-list or
copy-seq
function.

注意：sort可能会破坏它的参数，如果原始序列对我们很重要，最好使用copy-list
或copy-seq函数创建一个副本。


Equality

LISP has many different ideas of equality. Numerical equality is
denoted by =. Two symbols are eq if and only if they are identical. Two
copies of the same list are not eq, but they are equal.

关于相等，LISP有很多不同的观点。数值相等意味着=。两个符号当且仅当他们完全
一样时相同。同一个列表的两个副本不相同，但是它们相等。

> (eq 'a 'a)
T
> (eq 'a 'b)
NIL
> (= 3 4)
NIL
> (eq '(a b c) '(a b c))
NIL
> (equal '(a b c) '(a b c))
T
> (eql 'a 'a)
T
> (eql 3 3)
T

The eql predicate is equivalent to eq for symbols and to = for numbers
or the same type:

谓词eql代表相等，它对于符号表示相同，对于数值表示=。

> (eql 2.0 2)
NIL
> (= 2.0 2)
T
> (eq 12345678901234567890 12345678901234567890)
NIL
> (= 12345678901234567890 12345678901234567890)
T
> (eql 12345678901234567890 12345678901234567890)
T

The equal predicate is equivalent to eql for symbols and numbers. It is
true for two conses if and only if their cars are equal and their cdrs
are equal. It is true for two structures if and only if the structures
are the same type and their corresponding fields are equal.

equal谓词对于符号和数值是相等。当且仅当两个 conse
的car和cdr都相等时它们
才是相等的。当且仅当两个结构是同类型而且各字段都相等时它们相等。



Some Useful List Functions

These functions all manipulate lists.

这些函数都用来操作列表。

> (append '(1 2 3) '(4 5 6))    ;concatenate lists
(1 2 3 4 5 6)
> (reverse '(1 2 3))            ;reverse the elements of a list
(3 2 1)
> (member 'a '(b d a c))        ;set membership -- returns the first tail
(A C)                           ;whose car is the desired element
> (find 'a '(b d a c))          ;another way to do set membership
A
> (find '(a b) '((a d) (a d e) (a b d e) ()) :test #'subsetp)
(A B D E)                       ;find is more flexible though
> (subsetp '(a b) '(a d e))     ;set containment
NIL
> (intersection '(a b c) '(b))  ;set intersection
(B)
> (union '(a) '(b))             ;set union
(A B)
> (set-difference '(a b) '(a))  ;set difference
(B)

Subsetp, intersection, union, and set-difference all assume that each
argument contains no duplicate elements -- (subsetp '(a a) '(a b b)) is
allowed to fail, for example.

Subsetp，intersection，union和set-difference都允许各个参数包含不匹配的元素
--例如，(subsetp '(a a) '(a b b))可以为fail。

Find, subsetp, intersection, union, and set-difference can all take a
:test keyword argument; by default, they all use eql.

Find，subsetp，intersection，union和set-difference都可以接受一个:test关键
字参数；默认情况下，它们是等价的。

Getting Started with Emacs

You can use Emacs to edit LISP code: most Emacses are set up to enter
LISP mode automatically when they find a file which ends in .lisp, but
if yours isn't, you can type M-x lisp-mode.

你可以使用Emacs编辑LISP代码：Emaces在打开.lisp文件时总会自动进入LISP模式，
不过如果我们的Emacs没有成功进入这个状态，可以通过输入M-x
lisp-mode做到。

You can run LISP under Emacs, too: make sure that there is a command in
your path called "lisp" which runs your favorite LISP. For example, you
could type

我们也可以在Emacs下运行LISP：先确保在我们的私人路径下可以运行一个叫
"LISP"的命令。例如，我们可以输入：

       ln -s /usr/local/bin/clisp ~/bin/lisp

Then in Emacs type M-x run-lisp. You can send LISP code to the LISP you
just started, and do all sorts of other cool things; for more
information, type C-h m from any buffer which is in LISP mode.

然后在Emacs中输入 M-x
run-lip。我们可以向LISP发送先前的LISP代码，做其它
很酷的事情；在LISP模式下的任何缓冲输入 C-h
m可以得到进一步的信息。

Actually, you don't even need to make a link. Emacs has a variable
called inferior-lisp-program; so if you add the line

实际上，我们甚至不需要建立链接。Emacs有一个变量叫
inferior-lisp-program；
所以我们可以把下面这行

       (setq inferior-lisp-program "/usr/local/bin/clisp")

to your .emacs file, Emacs will know where to find CLISP when
you type M-x run-lisp.

输入到自己的 .emacs 文件中，Emacs就会知道在你输入 M-x
run-lisp时去哪里寻找
CLISP。